Pragmatic is the name for an approach or attitude to philosophical problems which focuses on workable solutions and practical outcomes. It provides a third alternative to the analytic and continental (or ‘Continental’) traditions in philosophy worldwide. Pragmatism was first introduced in the United States around 1870, and is still growing rapidly as a philosophical viewpoint.
Its first generation was initiated by the so-called classical pragmatist Charles Sanders Peirce, who defined the philosophy and wrote the key works on which it is based, and his Harvard colleague William James (1839-1910) who developed and defended it. Peirce’s scholarly interlocutor at the time, Josiah Royce (1855-1916), although nominally allied with absolute idealism, was also an important influence on pragmatism.
The classic pragmatists were primarily concerned with developing and defending a theory of inquiry. The central theme was a pragmatic maxim which required that any hypothesis be clarified by considering its ‘practical consequences’ in specific situations. This resulted in a distinctive epistemological outlook which is a fallibilist, anti-Cartesian ‘theory of truth’. James extended this line of reasoning to explore the nature of truth in religion and a number of other issues.
A second generation recast pragmatism to address the wider issues of politics, education and other dimensions of social improvement under the enormous influence of John Dewey (1859-1952). He focused on issues such as the theory of knowledge and the nature of reality – although he also considered what might be called ‘near side’ pragmatics, namely the resolution of ambiguity and vagueness in language.
More recently a third generation has emerged, with a renewed focus on questions of value theory, and an attempt to recast pragmatism in the light of the challenges presented by neo-Marxianism and hermeneutics. It has been especially influential in the United States, but its influence is now expanding internationally.
The development of a pragmatic metaethics has been a prominent feature of this movement, and is exemplified by a book by Heney (2016). The aim is to develop a theory of ethics which is rooted in classical pragmatism, while at the same time being able to address a broad range of contemporary concerns.
The main strands of the pragmatist metaethic are based on the notion that all actions have a purpose, and that each of us is committed to acting in a way which will contribute most to achieving this goal. In addition to this, there is a commitment to a principle of fairness which will ensure that the aims and interests of all parties are taken into account when decisions are made. This is a broad and inclusive view which goes well beyond utilitarianism and other forms of consequentialism. It is one of the features which distinguishes pragmatism from more narrowly-based ethical theories such as libertarianism, naturalism and utilitarian relativism. The latter tend to be inflexible and dogmatic about their conclusions, but pragmatism is flexible enough to accommodate a wide range of positions on these issues. This means that it is also compatible with a wide range of political and religious views.