Pragmatic is a growing third alternative to analytic and ‘Continental’ philosophical traditions worldwide. Pragmatism originated in the United States around 1870 and is characterised by a view that the meaning of descriptions (and the truth of claims) can be determined not just from their semantic meaning, as conventionally defined, but also from their pragmatic implications in the particular context of their use by speakers.
The pragmatists are concerned with closing the gap between theory and lived experience, as epitomised by James’s famous claim that ‘we never learn anything until we put it into practice’. Pragmatism is thus a philosophy of inquiry and discovery, as well as one of action.
Initially, the first generation of pragmatists were concerned with a number of philosophical issues, including the nature of knowledge and the meaning of science. They were also keen observers and some times participants in the scientific revolution then taking place, especially in evolutionary theory. However, when Dewey and his’second generation’ came to prominence, they turned wholeheartedly to questions concerning social progress, embracing the activism and reforms of the so-called Progressive Era (1896-1917).
Although there have been many variants of pragmatism, the main figures associated with it are Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914) and William James (1842-1910). They are sometimes known as the ‘classical pragmatists’ and are credited with defining and developing the philosophy, although James is best known for putting it into practice. Peirce’s close associate Josiah Royce (1955-1916) was originally allied to absolute idealism but became a pragmatist after becoming acquainted with Peirce’s work on the nature of inquiry and the community of inquirers.
A number of other philosophers, both analytic and continental, have absorbed and modified aspects of pragmatism and have continued to develop it. For example, the pragmatist philosophers Robert Brandom and Richard Rorty both adopted elements of Peirce’s notion of pragmatic maxims, as well as his concept of functional efficacy as a test for validating claims, to form their own distinctive views.
In the last twenty years or so, the pragmatist philosophy of language has become a major focus of interest in educational circles. The idea is that learning should be ‘problem-centred’, with students being encouraged to engage with phenomena that are genuinely puzzling or problematic, and then guided through a process of discovery, whereby the problems can be resolved to the satisfaction of all. This ‘cycle of inquiry’ was developed by a pupil of Dewey’s, Matthew Lipman, and is now the basis of the worldwide Philosophy for Children movement.
The philosophy of pragmatics has also impacted other disciplines, including theology, politics and ethics. For example, in political philosophy the pragmatic theory of democracy promoted by John Rawls is now an accepted approach to social justice and equality. In ethics, the pragmatist principle of ‘discourse ethics’ has been widely embraced, most prominently in the work of Jurgen Habermas (1901-1984), who applies pragmatist ideas to a wide range of contemporary social and political issues. He is perhaps most famous for his notion of ‘communicative action’ which he sees as a counter to the instrumentalist rationality that he believes is rampant in the contemporary world.